Sabtu, 7 November 2009

Qualitative Research: Conversation Analysis Guidelines Home : Publications : TESOL Quarterly : Research Guidelines Print this page

The following guidelines are provided for submissions using an ethnomethodological approach to conversation analysis (CA) as originated by Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson (1974) and Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks (1977). From this perspective, the principal goal of CA is to explicate and interpret how participants achieve everyday courses of action by orienting to the underlying structural organization of talk-in-interaction.

Assumptions

CA studies submitted to TESOL Quarterly should exhibit an in-depth understanding of the ethnomethodological philosophical perspectives and methodologies of CA research (see Firth, 1996; Firth & Wagner, 1997; Markee, 1994, 1995, 2000; Schegloff, Koshik, Jacoby, & Olsher, 2002; Seedhouse, 1997, 1999; Wagner, 1996). Utilizing these perspectives and methods in the course of conducting CA research helps ensure that studies represent credible accounts of participants' orientations to the behaviors they display to each other and therefore to analysts. Reports of CA studies should meet the following criteria:

1. The kinds of data analyzed should include naturally occurring data from either ordinary conversation (i.e., ordinary chatting among friends) or institutional talk (e.g., ESL classroom talk, oral proficiency interviews, writing conferences).
2. The report should focus on the usual topics of CA research (see Drew, 1994). These topics include, but are not limited to, the organization of sequences (i.e., courses of action), turn-taking and repair practices, syntax-for-conversation, the structure of speech events, and the integration of speech and gesture. Analyses should demonstrate how native speakers/users of English, nonnative speakers/users of English, or both deploy these aspects of interactional competence to communicate in or learn this language.
3. The research should aim to uncover an emic perspective. In other words, the study focuses on participants' contextualized perspectives and interpretations of behavior, events, and situations rather than etic (outsider-imposed) categories, models, and viewpoints (van Lier, 1988).
4. The primary data in the study should be the conversational and other behaviors that participants produce for each other in real time. The notion of context is principally understood as the talk that immediately precedes and follows the conversational object under study (Heritage, 1988); this is sometimes referred to as the cotext of talk (Brown & Yule, 1983). Other important aspects of context include the integration of embodied action and gesture with talk (Schegloff et al., 2002).
5. The conversational analysis may be supplemented by ethnographically oriented notions of context that entail the use of triangulated secondary data (such as think-aloud protocols, interviews, or diaries; see van Lier, 1988). The study may establish theoretical links to other perspectives on talk-in-interaction, such as Vygotskyan analyses of learners' zones of proximal development (Ohta, 2001).
6. Data collection strategies include the collection of videotapes, audiotapes, or both of talk-in-interaction, which are then transcribed according to the conventions of CA developed by Gail Jefferson (see Atkinson & Heritage, 1984; Boden & Zimmerman, 1991; Goodwin, 1981). Videotapes are strongly preferred because of the importance of embodied aspects of interaction.
7. In all cases, the recordings are considered to be the definitive source of information about the behaviors that were observed. Transcripts are understood as a tool for analysis to be used in conjunction with recordings.
8. External materials, such as classroom materials, interview schedules or drafts of papers, may be introduced into the database when relevant and appropriate, such as when participants themselves orient to these materials.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is guided by the ethnomethodological philosophy, methods, and goals of CA research.

* You should provide a comprehensive treatment of the data under discussion by demonstrating how participants collaboratively co-construct their talk. This entails analyzing prototypical examples of talk-in-interaction, which may consist of either single cases or collections of particular types of conversational objects. Ensure that you can warrant your claims by pointing to a convergence of different types of textual evidence and, where relevant, by demonstrating the characteristics of a particular practice across a variety of contexts (Jacobs, 1986, 1987).
* You may use CA findings to generate hypotheses for subsequent experimental research. However, this is not the principal aim of CA research (Schegloff, 1993). If you use quantification, ensure that it only follows careful analysis of the individual cases that are being quantified, with categories for quantification emerging from this analysis of individual cases (Stivers, 2001, 2002). However, the quantification of data is rarely an important issue in CA research.

The CA Report

CA reports submitted to TESOL Quarterly should include the following information:

* a clear statement of the research issues
* a description of the research site, participants, procedures for ensuring participant anonymity, and data collection strategies
* an empirically based description of a clear and salient organization of patterns found through data analysis–including representative examples, not anecdotal information
* interpretations in which you trace the underlying organization of patterns across all contexts in which they are embedded
* a discussion of how the data analyzed in the study connect with and shed light on current theoretical and practical issues in the acquisition and use of English as an L2

References and Further Reading on Conversation Analysis

Atkinson, J. M., & Heritage, J. (1984). Transcript notation. In J. M. Atkinson & J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures of social action: Studies in conversation analysis (pp. ix-xvi). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Boden, D., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1991). Transcription appendix. In D. Boden & D. H. Zimmerman (Eds.), Talk and social structure (pp. 278-282). Cambridge: Polity.

Brown, G., & Yule, G. (983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Drew, P. (1994). Conversation analysis. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (pp. 749-754). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality: On "lingua franca" English and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 237-259.

Firth, A., & Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication, and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal, 81, 285-300.

Goodwin, C. (1981). Conversational organization: Interaction between speakers and hearers. New York: Academic Press.

Heritage, J. (1988). Current developments in conversation analysis. In D. Roger & P. Bull (Eds.), Conversation: An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 21-47). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Jacobs, S. (1986). How to make an argument from example in discourse analysis. In D. G. Ellis & W. A. Donohue (Eds.), Contemporary issues in language and discourse processes (pp. 149-167). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jacobs, S. (1987). Commentary on Zimmerman: Evidence and inference in conversation analysis. Communication Yearbook, 11, 433-443.

Markee, N. (1994). Toward an ethnomethodological respecification of second language acquisition studies. In E. Tarone, S. Gass, & A. Cohen (Eds.), Research methodology in second language acquisition (pp. 89-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Markee, N. P. (1995). Teachers' answers to students' questions: Problematizing the issue of making meaning. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6, 63-92.

Markee, N. P. (2000). Conversation analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ohta, A. S. (2001). Second language acquisition processes in the classroom. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking in conversation. Language, 50, 696-735.

Schegloff, E. A. (1993). Reflections on quantification in the study of conversation. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 26, 99-128.

Schegloff, E. A., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language, 53, 361-382.

Schegloff, E. A., Koshik, I., Jacoby, S., & Olsher, D. (2002). Conversation analysis and applied linguistics. American Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 3-31.

Seedhouse, P. (1997). The case of the missing "no": The relationship between pedagogy and interaction. Language Learning, 47, 547-583.

Seedhouse, P. (1999). The relationship between context and the organization of repair in the L2 classroom. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 59-80.

Stivers, T. (2001). Negotiating who presents the problem: Next speaker selection in pediatric encounters. Journal of Communication, 51, 252-282.

Stivers, T. (2002). Presenting the problem in pediatric encounters: "Symptoms only" versus "candidate diagnosis" presentations. Health Communication, 14, 299-338.

van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language learner: Ethnography and second language classroom research. New York: Longman.

Wagner, J. (1996). Foreign language acquisition through interaction–A critical review of research on conversational adjustments. Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 215-236.

More Resources:

* Quantitative Research Guidelines
* How to Get Published in ESOL and Applied Linguistics Serials (PDF)
* Qualitative Research: Case Study Guidelines
* Qualitative Research: (Critical) Ethnography Guidelines
* TESOL Quarterly Submission Guidelines



Home : Publications : TESOL Quarterly : Research Guidelines

Rabu, 4 November 2009

berdoalah untuk kedua ibu bapa

http://books.google.com.my/books?id=MTNxAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA208&img=1&pgis=1&dq=%22Contexts+of+accommodation%22&sig=ACfU3U0QO3HSiQIV-hUk6zAvWwZurt2_qw&edge=

"Books will still exist for those who have not chosen The Implant. The rest of us will mentally turn on the Neural Implant Knowledge Stream anytime we like and let it run subconsciously. We'll control the "volume" mentally, allowing us to tune in -or out- the things around us."
George Beecher, Lawrenceville, GA

"When you walk by a book in the bookstore or your home library, the books, if determined to be of interest to you, will call out your name and given a short description of themselves to you."
Jacob P. Silvia, Houston, TX
alkisah..simpan barang terjumpa semperit..ni yg sedap dah tinggal serdak2.tu.boleh dimakan lagi.yummy

Language Arts & Disciplines

Book overview
The theory of accommodation is concerned with motivations underlying and consequences arising from ways in which we adapt our language and communication patterns toward others. Since accommodation theory's emergence in the early l970s, it has attracted empirical attention across many disciplines and has been elaborated and expanded many times. In Contexts of Accommodation, accommodation theory is presented as a basis for sociolinguistic explanation, and it is the applied perspective that predominates this edited collection. The book seeks to demonstrate how the core concepts and relationships invoked by accommodation theory are available for addressing altogether pragmatic concerns. Accommodative processes can, for example, facilitate or impede language learners' proficiency in a second language as well as immigrants' acceptance into certain host communities; affect audience ratings and thereby the life of a television program; affect reaction to defendants in court and hence the nature of the judicial outcome; and be an enabling or detrimental force in allowing handicapped people to fulfill their communicative potential.

Limited preview - 1991 - 321 pages - Language Arts & Disciplines

Preview this book

semperit

Conversation Intervention with Alzheimer’s Patients: Increasing the Relevance of Communication

The effectiveness of conversation in improving verbal communication of nursing home residents with Alzheimer’s disease was compared to exercise and a combination of both interventions. Fifty-five participants were randomly assigned to treatment group and raters were blinded. Treatment was given three times weekly for 30 minutes, for 16 weeks. Although all groups evidenced decline in the total number of words used as a group, the conversation-only subjects’ performance was significantly better in terms of the number of nonredundant units of information produced (p = .0433) and conciseness (p = .0101) using analysis of covariance controlling for baseline performance. Individual subjects’ change in performance was also examined. Active engagement in structured one-on-one conversation may improve relevance of communication in this population.
Keywords: Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, conversation, exercise, communication, picture description

DOKTOR, JURURAWAT 'BERAT MULUT' Posted by webmasters on 2009/2/24

Berita Semasa : DOKTOR, JURURAWAT 'BERAT MULUT' Posted by webmasters on 2009/2/24 17:14:55 (707 reads)
Oleh Azrina Ahzan
bhnews@bharian

Kementerian wajibkan kakitangan hospital hadiri kursus komunikasi

PUTRAJAYA: Semua kakitangan hospital, khususnya doktor dan jururawat diwajibkan menghadiri kursus komunikasi bagi mengurangkan jumlah aduan terhadap mutu perkhidmatan kesihatan.

Menteri Kesihatan, Datuk Seri Liow Tiong Lai, berkata ia juga kerana sebahagian besar aduan yang sering diterima kementerian berpunca daripada masalah kurang komunikasi kakitangan hospital dengan pesakit serta keluarga mereka.


Katanya, sepanjang tahun lalu kementerian menerima lebih 1,000, aduan manakala 34 diterima sepanjang Januari lalu.

"Kebanyakan aduan termasuk kepada Biro Pengaduan Awam (BPA) berpunca daripada masalah komunikasi. Sebab itulah doktor dan jururawat dinasihatkan supaya lebih berkomunikasi dengan pesakit.

"Ini kerana tanpa disedari, sikap doktor atau jururawat yang kurang bercakap atau tidak bercakap langsung dengan pesakit, boleh menimbulkan rasa tidak puas hati pesakit," katanya selepas melancarkan Kempen Penerapan Budaya Korporat kementerian di Pusat Konvensyen Antarabangsa Putrajaya (PICC), di sini semalam.


Liow berkata, sepanjang tahun lalu kementerian menganjurkan pelbagai kursus bagi membantu doktor dan jururawat meningkatkan kemahiran komunikasi masing-masing.

Mengulas kempen berkenaan, beliau berkata, ia memberi penekanan kepada tiga nilai teras iaitu penyayang, profesionalisme dan kerja berpasukan, inisiatif berterusan kementerian bagi membudayakan penyampaian perkhidmatan terbaik kepada rakyat.

"Usaha ini sudah dimulakan sejak 1987 menerusi kempen budaya korporat yang diperkenalkan oleh kementerian dan kempen kali ini bertujuan memberi suntikan baru bagi memantapkan lagi amalan budaya korporat di kalangan warga lama serta baru kementerian," katanya.

Mengenai usaha mengurangkan masalah kecuaian di semua hospital dan klinik kerajaan, beliau berkata, semua kakitangan kementerian sentiasa diingatkan supaya melaksanakan tugas dengan penuh tanggungjawab dan profesionalisme.

Referenced by:

2 newer articles

1. Wynn, Rolf (1996) 'Symptom' and 'diagnosis' as prototypes: applying the theory of prototypes and the notion of fuzziness to the study of a doctor-patient interaction. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 6(2)
[CrossRef]
2. Montazeri, Ali (1996) Interviewing cancer patients in a research setting: the role of effective communication. Supportive Care in Cancer 4(6)
[CrossRef]

Interpretation in doctor-patient interviews: A sociolinguistic analysis

Randolph S. Marshall1
(1) UC Berkeley/UCSFJoint Medical Program, San Francisco 66 Overlook Terrace, 10040 New York, N.Y.

Abstract This paper discusses interpretation in doctor-patient interviews from a sociolinguistic perspective. A meaning-centered orientation to clinical practice calls for practitioners to create a clinical picture of the illness that is compatible with the patient's experience. This requires that appropriate interpretation of symptoms take place. Using transcripts of doctor-patient interviews, this paper demonstrates that another interpretive process, necessary to understanding illness, occurs at the level of conversation. Contrasting examples illustrate that without an adequate degree of ldquoconversational cooperation,rdquo interpretation cannot take place. The results of poor conversational interpretation are the creation of an inaccurate clinical picture and the loss of clinically relevant information. The anthropological and sociolinguistic paradigms are linked by showing how differing perspectives on the illness affect conversational interpretation.

Rabu, 20 Mei 2009

sambungan...

Time budgeting

How should I define 'essential' and 'non-essential' activities: archival research, investigation of secondary sources, conferences, organising and/or attending seminars, etc. What is relevant and irrelevant for my PhD and my CV?

* This is a process of self-negotiation – there is no algorithm. All these activities are important. Doing a PhD is training for a profession, and upon its completion you should be poised to have some shot at getting a job. Some publication will improve your chances. You must become as well-known as possible so that, for example, letters from referees will be informal and more convincing.
* Although all these activities are important, they should run in parallel, not in series. You should not read everything before you write. Revise as you go along. Don't fear the writing stage!
* Don't attend conferences and give papers if this will take you away from your thesis. MPhil essays can be the source of good conference papers. Do attend conferences and give papers of relevance to your PhD; they can be a source of very useful deadlines.
* Do read widely in the first year of your PhD. You need a broad background for your work; you never know where you'll find useful information and ideas; and later on you'll be far too busy to read around.
* Do attend lectures in other departments (particularly in your first year): they can be a very valuable source of new ideas and inspiration.
* Especially for historians: At an early stage, discuss with your supervisor the resources you'll need. In many cases proper planning of your research is impossible until you know precisely where the relevant archives (or instruments) are located, in what languages, etc.
* Cambridge HPS PhDs are unusual. Many departments – in Holland or the US, for example – do not suppose that after nine months of a taught masters course you are simply to be left alone with your supervisor and advisor to write a PhD. Here, everything after your Masters is self-directed and informal.
* However, HPS is idiosyncratic in the number of seminars, colloquia and supervision demands placed upon graduates. The doctoral programme may be relatively informal – but is baroque in other terms.
* Remember that much of the literature is written by professionals who have been working on your topic for a long time. To avoid perfectionism, go to conferences, look at recent PhD dissertations, and read really bad writing.
* Manage the teaching load you take on! Keep your supervisor informed on what your teaching commitments are and take their advice as to what to take on...

How to get a PhD General

How to get a PhD
General

These informal suggestions come from students and members of staff attending previous meetings of the PhD workshop. For the regulations governing the PhD you should consult the Graduate Handbook (PDF file).

HPS PhDs cover such a broad range of possible topics that anything more than general advice is bound to be ad hominem. In the first few meetings with your supervisor, a relatively full account of research should be extracted. PhD topics are always revised massively and amazingly fast...

Scope, form, topic

* You need to end up with a project that is interesting and on a thesis-sized topic. A thesis-sized topic should be something that can be achieved within three years.
* There is always a danger, especially in history theses, that you will put off defining the topic until you know more about it. Don't keep an ideal, multivalent thesis in mind as a model, and in so doing delay making clear statements of your thesis. A thesis is not a utopian project.
* While looking at material, you will come up with original ideas. As you re-think your topic, ensure that these new ideas inform the major organisation of your thesis, not minor. This should take place throughout the first year or year-and-a-half. The longer you leave this, the more problematic such structuring work becomes.
* It is a good idea to keep a dynamic outline of your PhD as you go along.
* It is a big plus for a thesis to have a thesis. It should not be just an exploration of a region of intellectual terrain. Specify and define your case.
* Do not overexaggerate the scale of the project that you are undertaking. Do not take a big book as your model; take a substantial article that does a workmanlike job in your area. A thesis is two or three good articles with supporting and contextual material that evidences your competence in your area.
* The thesis should, according to examiners' criteria, be sufficient to serve as a basis for one monograph or two substantial articles. And whilst your examiners are your ultimate audience, it is worth trying to make your PhD interesting to a wider audience – this will make it easier, if ever, to turn it into a book.
* The classical structure for a PhD tends to be six to eight chapters, an introduction and a conclusion. This functions as a kind of strange attractor to doctoral students. Consider whether this structure is the right one – in at least two recent cases, the imposition of such a structure led to a large number of conceptual problems which were resolved by losing this format. For example, a recent thesis was improved vastly by breaking it into 25 chapters. Although supervisions are often arranged around chapters, don't assume that a unit equals one chapter.
* Avoid having chapters of radically different lengths.http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/students/training/getaphd.html

http://www.unisi.it/dida/kaleidoscope/How_PhD.pdf


Learning skills rather than knowledge
�� The PhD is primarily a research training exercise to get you
from being a beginner in research to the level of
professional.
�� You are playing a game where the goalposts are continually
being moved. Thus you must acquire the ability to evaluate
and re-evaluate others works and your own in the light of
current development.
�� Doing research is a craft skill and can only be learned by
doing. That is why PhD takes time.
You are not doing research in order to do research –
you are doing research in order to demonstrate that
you have learned how to do research.

What is the PhD about?

3
What is the PhD about?
1. The Doctoral Student (DS) demonstrating competency and
understanding of geography
2. The DS further developing and demonstrating expertise in areas
directly related to your dissertation topic
a. Take additional coursework
b. Carry out independent readings
3. The DS independently developing a proposal to carry out unique
and meaningful research
a. Addresses unique goals and objectives
b. Answers new questions and/or addresses unique issues
c. Proves/disproves hypotheses
d. Results in new research methods needed to address a. to c.
4. The DS carrying out the research outlined in the proposal
5. The DS presenting the results of the research in written format
6. The DS defending the research before a panel of peers

www.geog.umd.edu/academic/PhDin3Easy.pdf

hawa

Hawa diciptakan

Tatkala Adam a.s sudah berada di puncak kerinduan dan keinginan untuk mendapatkan kawan, sedang ia lagi duduk terpekur di atas tempat duduk yang berlapiskan tilam permaidani serba mewah, maka tiba-tiba ngantukpun datanglah menawannya serta langsung membawanya hanyut ke alam tidur.

Adam a.s tertidur nyenyak, tak sedar kepada sesuatu yang ada di sekitarnya. Dalam saat-saat yang demikian itulah Allah SWT menyampaikan wahyu kepada malaikat Jibril a.s untuk mencabut tulang rusuk Adam a.s dari lambung sebelah kiri. Bagai orang yang sedang terbius, Adam a.s tidak merasakan apa-apa ketika tulang rusuknya dicabut oleh malaikat Jibril a.s.

Dan oleh kudrat kuasa Ilahi yang manakala menghendaki terjadinya sesuatu cukup berkata “Kun!” maka terciptalah Hawa dari tulang rusuk Adam a.s, sebagai insan kedua penghuni syurga dan sebagai pelengkap kurnia yang dianugerahkan kepada Adam a.s yang mendambakan seorang kawan tempat ia boleh bermesra dan bersenda gurau.
http://www.darulnuman.com/mkisah/kisah010.html

adam

Adam kesepian

Apa saja di dalam syurga semuanya nikmat! Tetapi apalah erti segalanya kalau hati selalu gelisah resah di dalam kesepian seorang diri?

Itulah satu-satunya kekurangan yang dirasakan Adam a.s di dalam syurga. Ia perlu kepada sesuatu, iaitu kepada kawan sejenis yang akan mendampinginya di dalam kesenangan yang tak terhingga itu. Kadangkala kalau rindu dendamnya datang, turunlah ia ke bawah pohon-pohon rendang mencari hiburan, mendengarkan burung-burung bernyanyi bersahut-sahutan, tetapi aduh hai kasihan...bukannya hati menjadi tenteram, malah menjadi lebih tertikam. Kalau angin bertiup sepoi-sepoi basah di mana daun-daunan bergerak lemah gemalai dan mendesirkan suara sayup-sayup, maka terkesanlah di hatinya keharuan yang begitu mendalam; dirasakannya sebagai derita batin yang tegak di sebalik nikmat yang dianugerahkan Tuhan kepadanya.

Tetapi walaupun demikian, agaknya Adam a.s malu mengadukan halnya kepada Allah SWT. Namun, walaupun Adam a.s malu untuk mengadu, Allah Ta'ala sendiri Maha Tahu serta Maha Melihat apa yang tersembunyi di kalbu hamba-Nya. Oleh itu Allah Ta'ala ingin mengusir rasa kesepian Adam.

Keanehan-keanehan Tukang Azan

Keanehan-keanehan Tukang Azan

yekh Syihabuddin Muhammad bin Ahmad di dalam kitabnya “Al-Mustatraf” menceritakan tentang peristiwa-peristiwa tukang azan, di antaranya:

( i )
Seorang muazzin telah ditegur kerana azannya terlalu perlahan: “Kami tidak mendengar suara azanmu, kuatkanlah sedikit.”

“Aku dapat mendengarkan suaraku dari jarak satu batu.” jawab si Muazzin.*

( ii )
Seseorang berkata bahawa dia melihat muazzin melaungkan azan, kemudian keluar dari masjid dan lari seperti mengejar sesuatu.

“Hendak kemana engkau?” tanya orang.

“Aku ingin mendengarkan azanku sampai kemana gemanya.” *

( iii )
Diceritakan pula bahawa ada dua orang lelaki telah bersengketa pasal seorang jariah. Kerana tidak ada yang mahu mengalah, kedua-duanya sepakat menumpangkan jariah itu kepada seorang muazzin. Pada sebelah pagi setelah berazan, tiba-tiba muazzin itu berkata: “La ilaha illallah....telah hilang rasa kepercayaan dari manusia.”

“Bagaimana rasa kepercayaan boleh hilang dari manusia?” tanya mereka.

“Ini buktinya.” kata tukang azan itu sambil menunjuk kepada jariah yang ditumpangkan kepadanya. “Jariah ini ditinggalkan kepadaku. Kata yang menumpangkannya dia masih perawan. Tapi setelah aku menggaulinya, ternyata dia sudah janda.”*

( iv )
Dikota Humas ada seorang tukang azan yang memekik-memekik pada pagi Ramadhan: “Bersahurlah kalian! Aku sudah menyuruhmu. Cepatlah makan, sebelum saya berazan. Allah akan menghitamkan mukamu.” *

Seorang berazan sambil melihat lafaz-lafaz azan yang ditulis pada sehelai kertas.
“Engkau tidak hafal azan?” tanya mereka.

“Jangan tanya kepada saya, tapi pergilah kepada Kadi.” jawab Muazzin itu.

Mereka pun pergi ke rumah Kadi dan mengucapkan: “Assalamualaikum, wahai tuan Kadi.”

Kadi tidak segera menjawab, tapi masih mengeluarkan sehelai kertas lalu dibacanya: “Wa alaikum salam warahmatullahi wabarakatuh.”

Maka orang-orang surau itu pun datang kepada si Muazzin dan meminta maaf setelah mengetahui bahawa kadinya juga tidak hafal Assalamualaikum...” *

( v )
Seorang perempuan mendengar muazzin melaungkan azan Subuh setelah terbit matahari. Ketika sampai pada “Asshalatu khairum minannaum (Solat itu lebih baik daripada tidur), perempuan itu menjawab: “Tidur lebih baik daripada solat seperti sekarang ini.”

^
Dipetik Dari Buku: 6006 Senyum - Himpunan Kisah-kisah Lucu
Pengarang: A. K. Alang Jaafar.

kisah teladan

Jin Sebahagian Tentera Nabi Sulaiman
...ulaiman bin Daud adalah satu-satunya Nabi yang memperoleh keistimewaan dari Allah SWT sehingga boleh memahami bahasa binatang. Dia boleh bicara dengan burung Hud Hud dan juga boleh memahami bahasa semut. Dalam Al-Quran surah An Naml, ayat 18-26 adalah contoh dari sebahagian ayat yang menceritakan akan keistimewaan Nabi yang sangat kaya raya ini.

Firman Allah,

“Dan Sulaiman telah mewarisi Daud dan dia berkata, “hai manusia, kami telah diberi pengertian tentang suara burung dan kami diberi segala sesuatu. Sesungguhnya (semua) ini benar-benar suatu kurnia yang nyata.”

Dan dihimpunkan untuk Sulaiman tenteranya dari jin, manusia dan burung, lalu mereka itu diatur dengan tertib (dalam barisan) sehingga apabila mereka sampai di lembah semut berkatalah seekor semut, “hai semut-semut, masuklah ke dalam sarang-sarangmu agar kamu tidak diinjak oleh Sulaiman dan tenteranya, sedangkan mereka tidak menyedari.”

Maka Nabi Sulaiman tersenyum dengan tertawa kerana mendengar perkataan semut itu. Katanya,


“Ya Rabbi, limpahkan kepadaku kurnia untuk mensyukuri nikmat-Mu yang telah Engkau anugerahkan kepadaku dan kepada kedua orang tuaku; kurniakan padaku hingga boleh mengerjakan amal soleh yang Engkau redhai; dan masukkan aku dengan rahmat-Mu ke dalam golongan hamba-hambaMu yang soleh.”
(An-Naml: 16-19)

Menurut sejumlah riwayat, pernah suatu hari Nabi Sulaiman as bertanya kepada seekor semut, “Wahai semut! Berapa banyak engkau perolehi rezeki dari Allah dalam waktu satu tahun?”

“Sebesar biji gandum,” jawabnya.

Kemudian, Nabi Sulaiman memberi semut sebiji gandum lalu memeliharanya dalam sebuah botol. Setelah genap satu tahun, Sulaiman membuka botol untuk melihat nasib si semut. Namun, didapatinya si semut hanya memakan sebahagian biji gandum itu.

“Mengapa engkau hanya memakan sebahagian dan tidak menghabiskannya?” tanya Nabi Sulaiman.

“Dahulu aku bertawakal dan pasrah diri kepada Allah,” jawab si semut. “Dengan tawakal kepada-Nya aku yakin bahawa Dia tidak akan melupakanku. Ketika aku berpasrah kepadamu, aku tidak yakin apakah engkau akan ingat kepadaku pada tahun berikutnya sehingga boleh memperoleh sebiji gandum lagi atau engkau akan lupa kepadaku. Kerana itu, aku harus tinggalkan sebahagian sebagai bekal tahun berikutnya.”

Nabi Sulaiman, walaupun ia sangat kaya raya, namun kekayaannya adalah nisbi dan terbatas. Yang Maha Kaya secara mutlak hanyalah Allah SWT semata-mata. Nabi Sulaiman, meskipun sangat baik dan kasih, namun yang Maha Baik dan Maha Kasih dari seluruh pengasih hanyalah Allah SWT semata. Dalam diri Nabi Sulaiman tersimpan sifat terbatas dan kenisbian yang tidak dapat dipisahkan; sementara dalam Zat Allah sifat mutlak dan absolut.

Bagaimanapun kayanya Nabi Sulaiman, dia tetap manusia biasa yang tidak boleh sepenuhnya dijadikan tempat bergantung. Bagaimana kasihnya Nabi Sulaiman, dia adalah manusia biasa yang menyimpan kedaifan-kedaifannya tersendiri. Hal itu diketahui oleh semut Nabi Sulaiman. Kerana itu, dia masih tidak percaya kepada janji Nabi Sulaiman ke atasnya. Bukan kerana khuatir Nabi Sulaiman akan ingkar janji, namun khuatir Nabi Sulaiman tidak mampu memenuhinya lantaran sifat manusiawinya. Tawakal atau berpasrah diri bulat-bulat hanyalah kepada Allah SWT semata, bukan kepada manusia.

wow

slow food or fast food?

Ordering fast food

One night, a few co-workers at the computer data centre where I work stayed late and we all started to get hungry. We decided to order in food by phone, but our boss thought that, since we work with computers, it would be more appropriate to order by Internet. After we contacted a fast food chain's web site and spent a long time registering as new customers for the delivery service, a message appeared on the screeen: "Thank you for your business. You will be able to order food in three days."

apa tu

funny cat

A

chauffeur worked for a woman who took her cat with her on rides.

During one trip, the driver droped her at a mall before he gasing up. The cat remained in the car, laying down on the top of the limousine's back seat.

The service station's attendant often glanced at unusual passenger. Finally, he asked: "Sir, is that cat someone important?"

How To Write a (Thesis / Dissertation) Proposal October 24, 2002 M. Nussbaum

How To Write a (Thesis / Dissertation) Proposal
October 24, 2002
M. Nussbaum
1. Know the area
a. Read, read, read, …
b. Average 10-15 papers per week
c. Current Journals: at least read/scan abstracts
d. Use reference management software! (e.g. ProCite and EndNote)
e. Use search engines (MedLine, Ergo Abstracts, Psych Info, Compendex, ACM
Digital Library, etc.)
f. Go to the source literature (don’t expect textbooks and other secondary sources to
be either accurate or complete)
2. Go outside your area
a. Good source of new/different ideas
b. Avoids embarrassing overlap (already done by others in another field)
3. Pay attention to methods, analyses, motivations, applications
a. We did this because …
b. This work can be applied to …
4. Tree-in; tree-out
a. Look at paper citations, and who cited particular papers (ISI Citation Index)
b. Note how others interpreted (or how cited) papers you’ve already read; they may
have a different interpretation
5. Don’t get ‘paper-locked’
a. Easy to get overwhelmed and biased by what has already been done
b. Once familiar with an area, what has and hasn’t been done, start working on what
you could do
6. Look at proposals and documents generated by your predecessors
At this point, generate some initial ideas. Be creative, flexible, novel. Good idea to test them, if
possible.
Jumping ahead, what does a faculty member look for in a proposal?

http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/thesis.html

What is a thesis?

What is a thesis? For whom is it written? How should it be written?
Your thesis is a research report. The report concerns a problem or series of problems in your area of research and it should describe what was known about it previously, what you did towards solving it, what you think your results mean, and where or how further progress in the field can be made. Do not carry over your ideas from undergraduate assessment: a thesis is not an answer to an assignment question. One important difference is this: the reader of an assignment is usually the one who has set it. S/he already knows the answer (or one of the answers), not to mention the background, the literature, the assumptions and theories and the strengths and weaknesses of them. The readers of a thesis do not know what the "answer" is. If the thesis is for a PhD, the university requires that it make an original contribution to human knowledge: your research must discover something hitherto unknown.

Obviously your examiners will read the thesis. They will be experts in the general field of your thesis but, on the exact topic of your thesis, you are the world expert. Keep this in mind: you should write to make the topic clear to a reader who has not spent most of the last three years thinking about it.

Your thesis will also be used as a scientific report and consulted by future workers in your laboratory who will want to know, in detail, what you did. Theses are occasionally consulted by people from other institutions, and the library sends microfilm versions if requested (yes, still). More commonly theses are now stored in an entirely digital form. These may be stored as .pdf files on a server at your university. The advantage is that your thesis can be consulted much more easily by researchers around the world. (See e.g. Australian digital thesis project for the digital availability of research theses.) Write with these possibilities in mind.

It is often helpful to have someone other than your adviser(s) read some sections of the thesis, particularly the introduction and conclusion chapters. It may also be appropriate to ask other members of staff to read some sections of the thesis which they may find relevant or of interest, as they may be able to make valuable contributions. In either case, only give them revised versions, so that they do not waste time correcting your grammar, spelling, poor construction or presentation.
Some sites with related material

Writing and publishing a scientific paper
How to survive a thesis defence
Research resources and links supplied by Deakin University
"Final year projects": a guide from Mike Hart at King Alfred's College, Winchester, UK
Postgraduate Student Resources supplied by University of Canberra
A useful aid to surviving meetings with management
The National Association of Graduate - Professional Students (USA)

Some relevant texts

Stevens, K. and Asmar, C (1999) 'Doing postgraduate research in Australia'. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne ISBN 0 522 84880 X.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1994) 'How to get a PhD : a handbook for students and their supervisors'. Open University Press, Buckingham, England
Tufte, E.R. (1983) 'The visual display of quantitative information'. Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.
Tufte, E.R. (1990) 'Envisioning information' Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.

How to write a thesis proposal

I. Framework
Senior research projects in Environmental Sciences have the following elements in common:

1. An environmental issue is identified.
2. Other people's work on the topic is collected and evaluated.
3. Data necessary to solving the problem are either collected by the student, or obtained independently.
4. Data are analyzed using techniques appropriate to the data set.
5. Results of the analysis are reported and are interpreted in light of the initial environmental issue.

The final outcome of this process is a senior thesis that you will complete in the spring semester. The goal of the fall semester is that you identify a research topic, find a research mentor, formulate a hypothesis, understand the background of your project, develop or adapt appropriate methods, and summarize the state of your project as a thesis proposal. The goal is to progress as far as possible with the elements listed above during the fall semester. The more you can accomplish during the fall, the further you can drive the project in the end, and the more relaxed the spring semester is going to be for you (and us).

The purpose of writing a thesis proposal is to demonstrate that

1. the thesis topic addresses a significant environmental problem;
2. an organized plan is in place for collecting or obtaining data to help solve the problem;
3. methods of data analysis have been identified and are appropriate to the data set.

If you can outline these points clearly in a proposal, then you will be able to focus on a research topic and finish it rapidly. A secondary purpose of the proposal is to train you in the art of proposal writing. Any future career in Environmental Sciences, whether it be in industry or academia will require these skills in some form.

We are well aware that the best laid out research plans may go awry, and that the best completed theses sometimes bear only little resemblance to the thesis planned during the proposal. Therefore, when evaluating a thesis proposal, we are not trying to assure ourselves that you have clearly described a sure-fire research project with 0% risk of failure. (If there was no risk of failure, it wouldn't be research.)

Instead, what we're interested in seeing is if you have a clear handle on the process and structure of research as it's practiced by our discipline. If you can present a clear and reasonable thesis idea, if you can clearly relate it to other relevant literature, if you can justify its significance, if you can describe a method for investigating it, and if you can decompose it into a sequence of steps that lead toward a reasonable conclusion, then the thesis proposal is a success regardless of whether you modify or even scrap the actual idea down the line and start off in a different direction. What a successful thesis proposal demonstrates is that, regardless of the eventual idea you pursue, you know the steps involved in turning it into a thesis.
Resources/Acknowlegements

# The senior seminar website has a very detailed document on "How to write a thesis" which you might want to look at. Most of the tips given there are relevant for your thesis proposal as well.
# Recommended books on scientific writing
# Some of the material on this page was adapted from:

# http://www.geo.utep.edu/Grad_Info/prop_guide.html
# http://www.hartwick.edu/anthropology/proposal.htm
# http://csdl.ics.hawaii.edu/FAQ/FAQ/thesis-proposal.html
# http://www.butler.edu/honors/PropsTheses.html

kata-kata hikmah

Sesungguhnya Allah tidak pernah melupakan hambanya, tetapi kita yang sering lupa pada Dia ketika diberi nikmat bahagia..
cinta kepada Allah lebih hakiki..tapi tidak cinta kepada manusia..

tudung

http://kedai-ai.blogspot.com/

SATU KAJIAN KES: ANALISIS LINGUISTIK AFASIA AGRAMATISME

SATU KAJIAN KES: ANALISIS LINGUISTIK AFASIA AGRAMATISME
Chiang Ching Pei
Penyelia: Dr. Rogayah Abdul Razak
Kajian perintis ini bertujuan untuk memberikan deskripsi tatabahasa seorang penutur Melayu yang mempunyai afasia agramatisme dalam konteks perbualan. Sampel pertuturan spontan subjek diperoleh melalui interaksi bebas dalam pelbagai situasi. Rakaman ini dilakukan secara audio di rumah subjek dalam 4 sesi. Sampel bahasa ditranskripsikan dan dianalisa menggunakan Language Assessment, Remediation and Screening Procedures (LARSP). Hasil kajian menunjukkan pada ujaran satu-elemen, ayat kebanyakannya terdiri daripada kata nama. Pada ujaran yang melebihi satu-elemen, didapati terdapat ketidakseimbangan penyebaran yang tertumpu pada ujaran 2-elemen iaitu pada peringkat II, serta sedikit sahaja binaan ayat kompleks dihasilkan. 69.2% daripada frasa yang dibina adalah frasa nama dan klausa jenis negatif mempunyai kekerapan yang paling tinggi, diikuti dengan struktur klausa SV (subjek+kata kerja) dan VO (kata kerja+objek). Subjek menghadapi kesukaran bahasa semasa mencerita di mana banyak ayat tidak lengkap dihasilkan. Subjek menggunakan beberapa strategi untuk menampung kelemahan gramatikal dan semantik dalam perbualan. Didapati topik dan teman perbualan mempunyai pengaruh kepada kekompleksan bahasa yang digunakan. Walaupun profil LARSP hanya terhad kepada 2 tahap, namun kecelaruan gramatikal ini tidak begitu ketara disebabkan oleh ciri idiosinkratik Bahasa Melayu kolokial yang lebih ‘simpleks’ tatabahasanya. Kecelaruan paling ketara bagi subjek adalah pada tahap morfologi dan sintaksis.
Kata kunci: Analisis linguistik, afasia agramatisme
A CASE STUDY: LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF A MALAY AGRAMMATIC SPEAKER

Accommodate In My Direction

Accommodate In My Direction
The communication accommodation theory (CAT), also referred to as speech
accommodation theory, asserts that in communication, people unconsciously adapt their
behaviors to fit their situation. Speakers and listeners modify their communication behaviors to
better adapt to other speakers/listeners present (Buzzanell & Burrel, 1996; Watson & Gallois,
1998). It is something that people do everyday when communicating. We adapt our style of
communication with others to either gain approval or separate ourselves (Buzzanell & Burrel,
1996; Gass & Seiter, 2003).
People can react differently to different types of accommodation (Buller & Aune, 1992

How do nurses describe health care procedures? Analysing nurse-patient interaction in a hospital ward

How do nurses describe health care procedures?
Analysing nurse-patient interaction in a hospital
ward
ABSTRACT
Objective
Nurses’ communication skills have a significant
impact on their professional effectiveness. This study
examines the communication strategies used by
nurses on the ward in one aspect of the job, namely
the ways that they describe health procedures to
patients.
Design and setting
The data used in this project was collected by nurses
on a busy hospital ward as part of Victoria University’s
Language in the Workplace Project. Three nurses
carried minidisc recorders as they went about their
normal working day, recording their conversations with
patients, visitors, and other staff. Relevant sections
of this talk (totalling 300 minutes) were transcribed
and analysed using a discourse analysis approach,
thus providing a sound basis for analysing the
communicative act of describing a health procedure
and for identifying a range of relevant sociolinguistic
components of the interaction.
Subjects
The data was collected in a women’s hospital ward.
All patients, nurses, cleaners and ward clerks were
female; two doctors were female and two were male.

Khamis, 26 Februari 2009

kata2 pujangga

ata-kata Pujangga:"Berfikir sejenak, merenung masa lalu adalah permulaan yang baik untuk
bertindak."


Kata seorang sahabat: "Kita bermula sebagai seorang yang baru."


Kata-kata Pujangga: "Rahsia untuk berjaya ialah menghormati orang lain."


Kata-kata Pujangga: "Saya percaya; esok sudah tidak boleh mengubah apa yang berlaku hari ini,
tetapi hari ini masih boleh mengubah apa yang akan terjadi pada hari esok."


Kata-kata Pujangga: "Yang telah berlalu biarkan ia berlalu, yang mendatang hadapi dengan
cemerlang."


Kata-kata Pujangga: "Jadidiri seseorang itu kadangkala tidak terletak pada pujian semata-mata,
kadang-kala kejian juga."


Kata-kata Pujangga: "Banyak perkara yang kita ingini, tidak semua yang akan kita dapat."

phenomenalogy

he outcome of phenomenological method of nursology is descriptions of the professional clinical nursing situation. Nursology is a subjective-objective world that occurs between subjective-objective beings. Nursology's purpose is to delve deep in to this "between" rather than looking at the superficial. Relevance to nursing ranges from its use in formulating nursing constructs to proposing nursing theory. This phenomenological method can be used on a wide range of nursing situations and applications from clinical data to researching a historical study of nursing literature.

phenomenalogy

THEORY

The central task in social phenomenology is to demonstrate the reciprocal interactions among the processes of human action, situational structuring, and reality construction. Rather than contending that any aspect is a causal factor, phenomenology views all dimensions as constitutive of all others. Phenomenologists use the term reflexivity to characterize the way in which constituent dimensions serve as both foundation and consequence of all human projects. The task of phenomenology, then, is to make manifest the incessant tangle or reflexivity of action, situation, and reality in the various modes of being in the world.

Phenomenology commences with an analysis of the natural attitude. This is understood as the way ordinary individuals participate in the world, taking its existence for granted, assuming its objectivity, and undertaking action projects as if they were predetermined. Language, culture, and common sense are experienced in the natural attitude as objective features of an external world that are learned by actors in the course of their lives.

Questionaire

What kind of questions do we ask?

In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.

Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he chooses. Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of responses is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be wider and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range of opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with and open format question asking the respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.

Open format questions have several disadvantages. First, their very nature requires them to be read individually. There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money, and may not be practical for lower budget or time sensitive evaluations. They are also open to the influence of the reader, for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be eliminated by using a single reader, but a large number of responses can make this impossible. Finally, open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent. Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent increases.

Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy for the respondent, give

peplau's theory

Publication of Hildegard Peplau's book Interpersonal Relations in Nursing (1952) heralded the introduction of the first systematic theoretical framework for psychiatric nursing and focused on the nurse-client relationship. Her theory has been described as drawing from developmental (Blake, 1980) interpersonal (Peplau, 1952) and learning (Lego, 1980) theories. Peplau (1952) has defined nursing as, "a significant, therapeutic, interpersonal process that aims to promote a patient's health in the direction of creative, constructive, productive, personal, and community living" (page 16).

Peplau considered the relationship between nurse and client the key to the nursing process (Peplau, 1962; 1965). She conceptualized the nurse-client relationship as developing through phases: orientation, identification, exploitation, and resolution. The nurse and client have changing goals and roles as they pass through each phase. Peplau (1952) described the phases as "overlapping" and "interlocking" (page 17). For example, the nurse and client may return to an earlier phase. After initial issues have been resolved during exploitation they may return to problem identification to identify new issues to work on. Within this theory, awareness of the current stage of the-relationship is essential for the nurse to plan appropriate interventions.

design 2

The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include:

1. Defining the Objectives of the survey
2. Determining the Sampling Group
3. Writing the Questionnaire
4. Administering the Questionnaire
5. Interpretation of the Results

design

Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users.

Rabu, 11 Februari 2009

Communication Accommodation Strategies

Communication Accommodation Strategies
Convergence
Moderation of a speech style, whether in terms of lexical diversity, rate, accent, language, and/or some other linguistic feature, to become more similar to the interactant
Divergence
Accentuation of a difference between interlocutors on one or a number of linguistic features.
Maintenance
Refusal to alter communication style

definition of GT

Grounded Theory is a qualitative research technique where instead of starting with a theory, the researcher beings with the data and uses the data to generate a theory. Starting with a theory before analyzing the data is not allowed. The theory is not created from analyzing research literature, but from systematically analyzing the data through both inductive and deductive reasoning.
[edit]
Data analysis techniques:

Open coding - Data is divided into categories and analyzed for common themes.
Axial coding - Connections are made between categories.
Selective coding - Categories and connections between them form a story line to describe phenomenon.
Development of a theory - A theory, based entirely on collected data, is created to explain the phenomenon

GT

Grounded Theory is most accurately described as a research method in which the theory is developed from the data, rather than the other way around. That makes this is an inductive approach, meaning that it moves from the specific to the more general. The method of study is essentially based on three elements: concepts, categories and propositions, or what was originally called “hypotheses”. However, concepts are the key elements of analysis since the theory is developed from the conceptualization of data, rather than the actual data.

Strauss & Corbin, authors of “Basics of Qualitative research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques” are two of the model’s greatest advocates, and define it as follows: "The grounded theory approach is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon”. The primary objective of grounded theory, then, is to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those elements to the context and process of the experiment. In other words, the goal is to go from the general to the specific without losing sight of what makes the subject of a study unique.

Introduction to Grounded Theory

Introduction to
Grounded Theory


By Steve Borgatti

Discussion drawn from:

* Glaser and Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory.
* Strauss and Corbin. 1990. Basics of Qualitative Research.


Goals and Perspective

The phrase "grounded theory" refers to theory that is developed inductively from a corpus of data. If done well, this means that the resulting theory at least fits one dataset perfectly. This contrasts with theory derived deductively from grand theory, without the help of data, and which could therefore turn out to fit no data at all.

Grounded theory takes a case rather than variable perspective, although the distinction is nearly impossible to draw. This means in part that the researcher takes different cases to be wholes, in which the variables interact as a unit to produce certain outcomes. A case-oriented perspective tends to assume that variables interact in complex ways, and is suspicious of simple additive models, such as ANOVA with main effects only.

Part and parcel of the case-orientation is a comparative orientation. Cases similar on many variables but with different outcomes are compared to see where the key causal differences may lie. This is based on John Stuart Mills' (1843, A system of logic: Ratiocinative and Inductive) method of differences -- essentially the use of (natural) experimental design. Similarly, cases that have the same outcome are examined to see which conditions they all have in common, thereby revealing necessary causes.

The grounded theory approach, particularly the way Strauss develops it, consists of a set of steps whose careful execution is thought to "guarantee" a good theory as the outcome. Strauss would say that the quality of a theory can be evaluated by the process by which a theory is constructed. (This contrasts with the scientific perspective that how you generate a theory, whether through dreams, analogies or dumb luck, is irrelevant: the quality of a theory is determined by its ability to explain new data.)

Although not part of the grounded theory rhetoric, it is apparent that grounded theorists are concerned with or largely influenced by emic understandings of the world: they use categories drawn from respondents themselves and tend to focus on making implicit belief systems explicit.


Methods

The basic idea of the grounded theory approach is to read (and re-read) a textual database (such as a corpus of field notes) and "discover" or label variables (called categories, concepts and properties) and their interrelationships. The ability to perceive variables and relationships is termed "theoretical sensitivity" and is affected by a number of things including one's reading of the literature and one's use of techniques designed to enhance sensitivity.

Of course, the data do not have to be literally textual -- they could be observations of behavior, such as interactions and events in a restaurant. Often they are in the form of field notes, which are like diary entries. An example is here.

Khamis, 5 Februari 2009

CAT

* When speaking to children we adjust the way that we speak as well as the words we use to accommodate the individual to whom we are speaking.

* When speaking to the elderly we often change the way that we interact, including our speech patterns and behaviors and might show more respect (McCann, & Giles, 2006).

* When giving information during a job interview, an individual is going to accommodate his/her speech to the situation and person to whom they are speaking.

* One would not talk the same way to his/her boss as he/she would to his/her friends.

* Individuals speak to their parents differently than they speak to their peers.

CAT 2

Communication Accommodation Theory focuses on the role of conversations in our lives. The theory has been incorporated in a number of different studies. For instance, accommodation has been studied in the mass media (Bell, 1991), with families (Fox, 1999), with Chinese students (Hornsey & Gallois, 1998), with the elderly (Harwood, 2002), on the job (McCroskey & Richmond, 2000), in interviews (Willemyns, Gallois, Callan, & Pittam, 1997), and even with messages left on telephone answering machines (Buzzanell, Burrell, Stafford, & Berkowitz, 1996) (see our Research Note).
There is no doubt that the theory is heuristic. The theory is expansive enough to be very complete, and it has been supported by research from diverse authors. In addition, the theory's core processes of convergence and divergence make it relatively easy to understand, underscoring the simplicity of the theory.

Schramm’s Interactive Model, 1954

Schramm’s Interactive Model, 1954
a. Background
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and Weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages. Notice also the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning.
(From Wilbur Schramm, “How Communication Works,” in The Process and Effects of Communication, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1954), pp. 3-26):

CAT

COMMUNICATION ACCOMMODATION THEORY)
DEFINITION: CAT aims to specify the strategies of convergence, divergence, and maintenance by examining how speakers modify their communication to reduce or increase the difference between speakers and their conversational partners.
When a speaker has particular relational goals for an interaction, she will select communication strategies attending to or anticipating the recipient’s own communication characteristics. This process is called COMMUNICATIVE ATTUNING
THE INTERGENERATIONAL CONTEXT:
1. Overaccommodation. A miscommunicative process where at least one participant perceives a speaker to “go beyond” a communicative style necessary for attuning talk on a particular occasion.
2. Underaccommodation. A miscommunicative process where at least one participant perceives a speaker as communicating in a manner (style or quality of talk) that is underplayed regarding needs or wishes.
3. Young to Older Strategies.
a. Overaccommodation due to physical or sensory handicaps. Rightly or wrongly perceive older person to be specifically handicapped, and adapt beyond optimal level
b. Dependency-related overaccommodation. Overbearing, disciplinary, excessively directive talk to older person. Young use to control relationship
c. Age-related divergence. Emphasize differences of younger group. Values, lifestyles used to mark age differences.
d. Intergroup overaccommodation. Most pervasive—accommodate not to elderly as individuals

accommodation..

1. What is accommodation?
1.1. A simple example
Our heroine has landed herself in a dicult spot. From all sides dangerous
criminals are approaching. She reports (1).
(1) I knew they would show no mercy.
Innocent as it may seem, this example is problematic for theories of presupposition
that assume that whatever is presupposed must be known
to speaker and hearer prior to utterance. (1) contains the word know
and the use of this verb is generally assumed to presuppose its complement.
But our example may well be the rst time that our heroine
informs us of the treatment she expects at the hands of the villains. The
operation that helps us out here is accommodation, and involves making
it common ground between us and the speaker that the complement
is true. Lewis (1979), who brought the term accommodation into use
among philosophers of language and semanticists, conceived of it as
a repair strategy: the hearer recognizes that something is wrong, sees
that the day can be saved by adding the missing presupposition and
proceeds to do just that.1
Accommodation is something you do in deference to the wishes of
another. This explains why the word accommodation is used frequently
in the tourist industry. More worrying is that there is also another
technical linguistic use of accommodation, namely that in sociolinguistics
(Giles et al., 1987). Here it refers to conscious or unconscious
attempts by interlocutors to adapt their linguistic habits (e.g. in pronunciation,
choice of words and constructions, posture) to the habits of
other interlocutors, typically by taking over some of the other interlocutors
behavior. While both the sociolinguistic and semantic/pragmatic
uses of accommodation describe adaptations made to enhance communicational
success, the two coinages are distinct and historically
unconnected.