ata-kata Pujangga:"Berfikir sejenak, merenung masa lalu adalah permulaan yang baik untuk
bertindak."
Kata seorang sahabat: "Kita bermula sebagai seorang yang baru."
Kata-kata Pujangga: "Rahsia untuk berjaya ialah menghormati orang lain."
Kata-kata Pujangga: "Saya percaya; esok sudah tidak boleh mengubah apa yang berlaku hari ini,
tetapi hari ini masih boleh mengubah apa yang akan terjadi pada hari esok."
Kata-kata Pujangga: "Yang telah berlalu biarkan ia berlalu, yang mendatang hadapi dengan
cemerlang."
Kata-kata Pujangga: "Jadidiri seseorang itu kadangkala tidak terletak pada pujian semata-mata,
kadang-kala kejian juga."
Kata-kata Pujangga: "Banyak perkara yang kita ingini, tidak semua yang akan kita dapat."
Khamis, 26 Februari 2009
phenomenalogy
he outcome of phenomenological method of nursology is descriptions of the professional clinical nursing situation. Nursology is a subjective-objective world that occurs between subjective-objective beings. Nursology's purpose is to delve deep in to this "between" rather than looking at the superficial. Relevance to nursing ranges from its use in formulating nursing constructs to proposing nursing theory. This phenomenological method can be used on a wide range of nursing situations and applications from clinical data to researching a historical study of nursing literature.
phenomenalogy
THEORY
The central task in social phenomenology is to demonstrate the reciprocal interactions among the processes of human action, situational structuring, and reality construction. Rather than contending that any aspect is a causal factor, phenomenology views all dimensions as constitutive of all others. Phenomenologists use the term reflexivity to characterize the way in which constituent dimensions serve as both foundation and consequence of all human projects. The task of phenomenology, then, is to make manifest the incessant tangle or reflexivity of action, situation, and reality in the various modes of being in the world.
Phenomenology commences with an analysis of the natural attitude. This is understood as the way ordinary individuals participate in the world, taking its existence for granted, assuming its objectivity, and undertaking action projects as if they were predetermined. Language, culture, and common sense are experienced in the natural attitude as objective features of an external world that are learned by actors in the course of their lives.
The central task in social phenomenology is to demonstrate the reciprocal interactions among the processes of human action, situational structuring, and reality construction. Rather than contending that any aspect is a causal factor, phenomenology views all dimensions as constitutive of all others. Phenomenologists use the term reflexivity to characterize the way in which constituent dimensions serve as both foundation and consequence of all human projects. The task of phenomenology, then, is to make manifest the incessant tangle or reflexivity of action, situation, and reality in the various modes of being in the world.
Phenomenology commences with an analysis of the natural attitude. This is understood as the way ordinary individuals participate in the world, taking its existence for granted, assuming its objectivity, and undertaking action projects as if they were predetermined. Language, culture, and common sense are experienced in the natural attitude as objective features of an external world that are learned by actors in the course of their lives.
Questionaire
What kind of questions do we ask?
In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.
Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he chooses. Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of responses is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be wider and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range of opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with and open format question asking the respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.
Open format questions have several disadvantages. First, their very nature requires them to be read individually. There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money, and may not be practical for lower budget or time sensitive evaluations. They are also open to the influence of the reader, for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be eliminated by using a single reader, but a large number of responses can make this impossible. Finally, open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent. Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent increases.
Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy for the respondent, give
In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.
Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he chooses. Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of responses is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be wider and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range of opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with and open format question asking the respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.
Open format questions have several disadvantages. First, their very nature requires them to be read individually. There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money, and may not be practical for lower budget or time sensitive evaluations. They are also open to the influence of the reader, for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be eliminated by using a single reader, but a large number of responses can make this impossible. Finally, open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent. Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent increases.
Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy for the respondent, give
peplau's theory
Publication of Hildegard Peplau's book Interpersonal Relations in Nursing (1952) heralded the introduction of the first systematic theoretical framework for psychiatric nursing and focused on the nurse-client relationship. Her theory has been described as drawing from developmental (Blake, 1980) interpersonal (Peplau, 1952) and learning (Lego, 1980) theories. Peplau (1952) has defined nursing as, "a significant, therapeutic, interpersonal process that aims to promote a patient's health in the direction of creative, constructive, productive, personal, and community living" (page 16).
Peplau considered the relationship between nurse and client the key to the nursing process (Peplau, 1962; 1965). She conceptualized the nurse-client relationship as developing through phases: orientation, identification, exploitation, and resolution. The nurse and client have changing goals and roles as they pass through each phase. Peplau (1952) described the phases as "overlapping" and "interlocking" (page 17). For example, the nurse and client may return to an earlier phase. After initial issues have been resolved during exploitation they may return to problem identification to identify new issues to work on. Within this theory, awareness of the current stage of the-relationship is essential for the nurse to plan appropriate interventions.
Peplau considered the relationship between nurse and client the key to the nursing process (Peplau, 1962; 1965). She conceptualized the nurse-client relationship as developing through phases: orientation, identification, exploitation, and resolution. The nurse and client have changing goals and roles as they pass through each phase. Peplau (1952) described the phases as "overlapping" and "interlocking" (page 17). For example, the nurse and client may return to an earlier phase. After initial issues have been resolved during exploitation they may return to problem identification to identify new issues to work on. Within this theory, awareness of the current stage of the-relationship is essential for the nurse to plan appropriate interventions.
design 2
The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include:
1. Defining the Objectives of the survey
2. Determining the Sampling Group
3. Writing the Questionnaire
4. Administering the Questionnaire
5. Interpretation of the Results
1. Defining the Objectives of the survey
2. Determining the Sampling Group
3. Writing the Questionnaire
4. Administering the Questionnaire
5. Interpretation of the Results
design
Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users.
Rabu, 11 Februari 2009
Communication Accommodation Strategies
Communication Accommodation Strategies
Convergence
Moderation of a speech style, whether in terms of lexical diversity, rate, accent, language, and/or some other linguistic feature, to become more similar to the interactant
Divergence
Accentuation of a difference between interlocutors on one or a number of linguistic features.
Maintenance
Refusal to alter communication style
Convergence
Moderation of a speech style, whether in terms of lexical diversity, rate, accent, language, and/or some other linguistic feature, to become more similar to the interactant
Divergence
Accentuation of a difference between interlocutors on one or a number of linguistic features.
Maintenance
Refusal to alter communication style
definition of GT
Grounded Theory is a qualitative research technique where instead of starting with a theory, the researcher beings with the data and uses the data to generate a theory. Starting with a theory before analyzing the data is not allowed. The theory is not created from analyzing research literature, but from systematically analyzing the data through both inductive and deductive reasoning.
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Data analysis techniques:
Open coding - Data is divided into categories and analyzed for common themes.
Axial coding - Connections are made between categories.
Selective coding - Categories and connections between them form a story line to describe phenomenon.
Development of a theory - A theory, based entirely on collected data, is created to explain the phenomenon
[edit]
Data analysis techniques:
Open coding - Data is divided into categories and analyzed for common themes.
Axial coding - Connections are made between categories.
Selective coding - Categories and connections between them form a story line to describe phenomenon.
Development of a theory - A theory, based entirely on collected data, is created to explain the phenomenon
GT
Grounded Theory is most accurately described as a research method in which the theory is developed from the data, rather than the other way around. That makes this is an inductive approach, meaning that it moves from the specific to the more general. The method of study is essentially based on three elements: concepts, categories and propositions, or what was originally called “hypotheses”. However, concepts are the key elements of analysis since the theory is developed from the conceptualization of data, rather than the actual data.
Strauss & Corbin, authors of “Basics of Qualitative research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques” are two of the model’s greatest advocates, and define it as follows: "The grounded theory approach is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon”. The primary objective of grounded theory, then, is to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those elements to the context and process of the experiment. In other words, the goal is to go from the general to the specific without losing sight of what makes the subject of a study unique.
Strauss & Corbin, authors of “Basics of Qualitative research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques” are two of the model’s greatest advocates, and define it as follows: "The grounded theory approach is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon”. The primary objective of grounded theory, then, is to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those elements to the context and process of the experiment. In other words, the goal is to go from the general to the specific without losing sight of what makes the subject of a study unique.
Introduction to Grounded Theory
Introduction to
Grounded Theory
By Steve Borgatti
Discussion drawn from:
* Glaser and Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory.
* Strauss and Corbin. 1990. Basics of Qualitative Research.
Goals and Perspective
The phrase "grounded theory" refers to theory that is developed inductively from a corpus of data. If done well, this means that the resulting theory at least fits one dataset perfectly. This contrasts with theory derived deductively from grand theory, without the help of data, and which could therefore turn out to fit no data at all.
Grounded theory takes a case rather than variable perspective, although the distinction is nearly impossible to draw. This means in part that the researcher takes different cases to be wholes, in which the variables interact as a unit to produce certain outcomes. A case-oriented perspective tends to assume that variables interact in complex ways, and is suspicious of simple additive models, such as ANOVA with main effects only.
Part and parcel of the case-orientation is a comparative orientation. Cases similar on many variables but with different outcomes are compared to see where the key causal differences may lie. This is based on John Stuart Mills' (1843, A system of logic: Ratiocinative and Inductive) method of differences -- essentially the use of (natural) experimental design. Similarly, cases that have the same outcome are examined to see which conditions they all have in common, thereby revealing necessary causes.
The grounded theory approach, particularly the way Strauss develops it, consists of a set of steps whose careful execution is thought to "guarantee" a good theory as the outcome. Strauss would say that the quality of a theory can be evaluated by the process by which a theory is constructed. (This contrasts with the scientific perspective that how you generate a theory, whether through dreams, analogies or dumb luck, is irrelevant: the quality of a theory is determined by its ability to explain new data.)
Although not part of the grounded theory rhetoric, it is apparent that grounded theorists are concerned with or largely influenced by emic understandings of the world: they use categories drawn from respondents themselves and tend to focus on making implicit belief systems explicit.
Methods
The basic idea of the grounded theory approach is to read (and re-read) a textual database (such as a corpus of field notes) and "discover" or label variables (called categories, concepts and properties) and their interrelationships. The ability to perceive variables and relationships is termed "theoretical sensitivity" and is affected by a number of things including one's reading of the literature and one's use of techniques designed to enhance sensitivity.
Of course, the data do not have to be literally textual -- they could be observations of behavior, such as interactions and events in a restaurant. Often they are in the form of field notes, which are like diary entries. An example is here.
Grounded Theory
By Steve Borgatti
Discussion drawn from:
* Glaser and Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory.
* Strauss and Corbin. 1990. Basics of Qualitative Research.
Goals and Perspective
The phrase "grounded theory" refers to theory that is developed inductively from a corpus of data. If done well, this means that the resulting theory at least fits one dataset perfectly. This contrasts with theory derived deductively from grand theory, without the help of data, and which could therefore turn out to fit no data at all.
Grounded theory takes a case rather than variable perspective, although the distinction is nearly impossible to draw. This means in part that the researcher takes different cases to be wholes, in which the variables interact as a unit to produce certain outcomes. A case-oriented perspective tends to assume that variables interact in complex ways, and is suspicious of simple additive models, such as ANOVA with main effects only.
Part and parcel of the case-orientation is a comparative orientation. Cases similar on many variables but with different outcomes are compared to see where the key causal differences may lie. This is based on John Stuart Mills' (1843, A system of logic: Ratiocinative and Inductive) method of differences -- essentially the use of (natural) experimental design. Similarly, cases that have the same outcome are examined to see which conditions they all have in common, thereby revealing necessary causes.
The grounded theory approach, particularly the way Strauss develops it, consists of a set of steps whose careful execution is thought to "guarantee" a good theory as the outcome. Strauss would say that the quality of a theory can be evaluated by the process by which a theory is constructed. (This contrasts with the scientific perspective that how you generate a theory, whether through dreams, analogies or dumb luck, is irrelevant: the quality of a theory is determined by its ability to explain new data.)
Although not part of the grounded theory rhetoric, it is apparent that grounded theorists are concerned with or largely influenced by emic understandings of the world: they use categories drawn from respondents themselves and tend to focus on making implicit belief systems explicit.
Methods
The basic idea of the grounded theory approach is to read (and re-read) a textual database (such as a corpus of field notes) and "discover" or label variables (called categories, concepts and properties) and their interrelationships. The ability to perceive variables and relationships is termed "theoretical sensitivity" and is affected by a number of things including one's reading of the literature and one's use of techniques designed to enhance sensitivity.
Of course, the data do not have to be literally textual -- they could be observations of behavior, such as interactions and events in a restaurant. Often they are in the form of field notes, which are like diary entries. An example is here.
Khamis, 5 Februari 2009
CAT
* When speaking to children we adjust the way that we speak as well as the words we use to accommodate the individual to whom we are speaking.
* When speaking to the elderly we often change the way that we interact, including our speech patterns and behaviors and might show more respect (McCann, & Giles, 2006).
* When giving information during a job interview, an individual is going to accommodate his/her speech to the situation and person to whom they are speaking.
* One would not talk the same way to his/her boss as he/she would to his/her friends.
* Individuals speak to their parents differently than they speak to their peers.
* When speaking to the elderly we often change the way that we interact, including our speech patterns and behaviors and might show more respect (McCann, & Giles, 2006).
* When giving information during a job interview, an individual is going to accommodate his/her speech to the situation and person to whom they are speaking.
* One would not talk the same way to his/her boss as he/she would to his/her friends.
* Individuals speak to their parents differently than they speak to their peers.
CAT 2
Communication Accommodation Theory focuses on the role of conversations in our lives. The theory has been incorporated in a number of different studies. For instance, accommodation has been studied in the mass media (Bell, 1991), with families (Fox, 1999), with Chinese students (Hornsey & Gallois, 1998), with the elderly (Harwood, 2002), on the job (McCroskey & Richmond, 2000), in interviews (Willemyns, Gallois, Callan, & Pittam, 1997), and even with messages left on telephone answering machines (Buzzanell, Burrell, Stafford, & Berkowitz, 1996) (see our Research Note).
There is no doubt that the theory is heuristic. The theory is expansive enough to be very complete, and it has been supported by research from diverse authors. In addition, the theory's core processes of convergence and divergence make it relatively easy to understand, underscoring the simplicity of the theory.
There is no doubt that the theory is heuristic. The theory is expansive enough to be very complete, and it has been supported by research from diverse authors. In addition, the theory's core processes of convergence and divergence make it relatively easy to understand, underscoring the simplicity of the theory.
Schramm’s Interactive Model, 1954
Schramm’s Interactive Model, 1954
a. Background
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and Weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages. Notice also the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning.
(From Wilbur Schramm, “How Communication Works,” in The Process and Effects of Communication, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1954), pp. 3-26):
a. Background
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and Weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages. Notice also the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning.
(From Wilbur Schramm, “How Communication Works,” in The Process and Effects of Communication, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1954), pp. 3-26):
CAT
COMMUNICATION ACCOMMODATION THEORY)
DEFINITION: CAT aims to specify the strategies of convergence, divergence, and maintenance by examining how speakers modify their communication to reduce or increase the difference between speakers and their conversational partners.
When a speaker has particular relational goals for an interaction, she will select communication strategies attending to or anticipating the recipient’s own communication characteristics. This process is called COMMUNICATIVE ATTUNING
THE INTERGENERATIONAL CONTEXT:
1. Overaccommodation. A miscommunicative process where at least one participant perceives a speaker to “go beyond” a communicative style necessary for attuning talk on a particular occasion.
2. Underaccommodation. A miscommunicative process where at least one participant perceives a speaker as communicating in a manner (style or quality of talk) that is underplayed regarding needs or wishes.
3. Young to Older Strategies.
a. Overaccommodation due to physical or sensory handicaps. Rightly or wrongly perceive older person to be specifically handicapped, and adapt beyond optimal level
b. Dependency-related overaccommodation. Overbearing, disciplinary, excessively directive talk to older person. Young use to control relationship
c. Age-related divergence. Emphasize differences of younger group. Values, lifestyles used to mark age differences.
d. Intergroup overaccommodation. Most pervasive—accommodate not to elderly as individuals
DEFINITION: CAT aims to specify the strategies of convergence, divergence, and maintenance by examining how speakers modify their communication to reduce or increase the difference between speakers and their conversational partners.
When a speaker has particular relational goals for an interaction, she will select communication strategies attending to or anticipating the recipient’s own communication characteristics. This process is called COMMUNICATIVE ATTUNING
THE INTERGENERATIONAL CONTEXT:
1. Overaccommodation. A miscommunicative process where at least one participant perceives a speaker to “go beyond” a communicative style necessary for attuning talk on a particular occasion.
2. Underaccommodation. A miscommunicative process where at least one participant perceives a speaker as communicating in a manner (style or quality of talk) that is underplayed regarding needs or wishes.
3. Young to Older Strategies.
a. Overaccommodation due to physical or sensory handicaps. Rightly or wrongly perceive older person to be specifically handicapped, and adapt beyond optimal level
b. Dependency-related overaccommodation. Overbearing, disciplinary, excessively directive talk to older person. Young use to control relationship
c. Age-related divergence. Emphasize differences of younger group. Values, lifestyles used to mark age differences.
d. Intergroup overaccommodation. Most pervasive—accommodate not to elderly as individuals
accommodation..
1. What is accommodation?
1.1. A simple example
Our heroine has landed herself in a dicult spot. From all sides dangerous
criminals are approaching. She reports (1).
(1) I knew they would show no mercy.
Innocent as it may seem, this example is problematic for theories of presupposition
that assume that whatever is presupposed must be known
to speaker and hearer prior to utterance. (1) contains the word know
and the use of this verb is generally assumed to presuppose its complement.
But our example may well be the rst time that our heroine
informs us of the treatment she expects at the hands of the villains. The
operation that helps us out here is accommodation, and involves making
it common ground between us and the speaker that the complement
is true. Lewis (1979), who brought the term accommodation into use
among philosophers of language and semanticists, conceived of it as
a repair strategy: the hearer recognizes that something is wrong, sees
that the day can be saved by adding the missing presupposition and
proceeds to do just that.1
Accommodation is something you do in deference to the wishes of
another. This explains why the word accommodation is used frequently
in the tourist industry. More worrying is that there is also another
technical linguistic use of accommodation, namely that in sociolinguistics
(Giles et al., 1987). Here it refers to conscious or unconscious
attempts by interlocutors to adapt their linguistic habits (e.g. in pronunciation,
choice of words and constructions, posture) to the habits of
other interlocutors, typically by taking over some of the other interlocutors
behavior. While both the sociolinguistic and semantic/pragmatic
uses of accommodation describe adaptations made to enhance communicational
success, the two coinages are distinct and historically
unconnected.
1.1. A simple example
Our heroine has landed herself in a dicult spot. From all sides dangerous
criminals are approaching. She reports (1).
(1) I knew they would show no mercy.
Innocent as it may seem, this example is problematic for theories of presupposition
that assume that whatever is presupposed must be known
to speaker and hearer prior to utterance. (1) contains the word know
and the use of this verb is generally assumed to presuppose its complement.
But our example may well be the rst time that our heroine
informs us of the treatment she expects at the hands of the villains. The
operation that helps us out here is accommodation, and involves making
it common ground between us and the speaker that the complement
is true. Lewis (1979), who brought the term accommodation into use
among philosophers of language and semanticists, conceived of it as
a repair strategy: the hearer recognizes that something is wrong, sees
that the day can be saved by adding the missing presupposition and
proceeds to do just that.1
Accommodation is something you do in deference to the wishes of
another. This explains why the word accommodation is used frequently
in the tourist industry. More worrying is that there is also another
technical linguistic use of accommodation, namely that in sociolinguistics
(Giles et al., 1987). Here it refers to conscious or unconscious
attempts by interlocutors to adapt their linguistic habits (e.g. in pronunciation,
choice of words and constructions, posture) to the habits of
other interlocutors, typically by taking over some of the other interlocutors
behavior. While both the sociolinguistic and semantic/pragmatic
uses of accommodation describe adaptations made to enhance communicational
success, the two coinages are distinct and historically
unconnected.
Langgan:
Catatan (Atom)